Spirituality, Psychological Distress, and Coping Styles in Young and Middle Adulthood: A Comparative Study
Apoorva Kohli 1, Anoma Modak *2
*Correspondence to: Anoma Modak, Clinical Psychologist, Indian Institute of Foreign Trade, India.
Orcid: https://orcid.org/0009-0000-9326-3878
Copyright
© 2026 Anoma Modak, This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Received: 11 February 2026
Published: 01 March 2026
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18829486
Abstract
The present study examined the relationship between spirituality and psychological distress, specifically depression, anxiety, and stress, and explored differences in coping styles between individuals in young and middle adulthood. Using a comparative and correlational research design, data were collected from 106 adults, including 56 young adults and 50 middle adults. Spirituality was assessed using the Spiritual Health Assessment Scale, psychological distress was measured using the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale 21, and coping strategies were evaluated using the Brief Coping Orientation to Problems Experienced Scale. Pearson product moment correlation analysis was employed to examine associations between spirituality and psychological distress, while two-way analysis of variance was used to compare coping styles across age groups. The results indicated that spirituality was not significantly associated with depression, anxiety, or stress. However, strong and statistically significant positive relationships were observed among depression, anxiety, and stress. Further analysis revealed no significant differences in coping styles between young and middle adults, and the effect of age group on coping was negligible. These findings suggest that spirituality may not function as a direct protective factor against psychological distress in non-clinical adult populations and that coping styles may remain relatively stable across young and middle adulthood. The study highlights the complexity of the relationships among spirituality, coping, and mental health and underscores the need for further research examining specific dimensions of spirituality and their interaction with coping processes across developmental stages.
Keywords: Spirituality; Depression; Anxiety; Stress; Coping styles.
Introduction
Depression, anxiety, and stress constitute some of the most prevalent psychological concerns across adulthood, influencing emotional wellbeing, daily functioning, and overall quality of life. While pharmacological and psychotherapeutic interventions remain central to treatment, growing attention has been directed toward personal and psychosocial resources that support psychological adjustment. Spirituality has emerged as one such resource, offering individuals a framework for meaning making, emotional regulation, and adaptive coping in the face of psychological distress. Examining the role of spirituality in relation to mental health outcomes and coping processes across different stages of adulthood remains a relevant and evolving area of psychological research.
Conceptualizing Spirituality in Psychological Research
In psychological research, spirituality is commonly understood as a personal and subjective dimension of human experience that involves the search for meaning, purpose, and connection beyond material aspects of life (Johnson et al., 2011; Joulaei et al., 2016). It reflects an individual’s relationship with the self, others, and a perceived higher reality, and is often expressed through beliefs, values, experiences, and practices that provide coherence and direction to life (Peselow et al., 2014). Unlike rigid doctrinal systems, spirituality is viewed as flexible and internally guided, allowing individuals to engage with it in ways that are personally meaningful (Craig et al., 2022).
A growing body of research distinguishes spirituality from organized religion while acknowledging their potential overlap (Vitorino et al., 2018). Religion is generally characterized by structured belief systems, rituals, and collective practices, whereas spirituality emphasizes individual experience, inner awareness, and personal meaning making (Rentala et al., 2017). This distinction has enabled researchers to examine spirituality among individuals who identify as spiritual without formal religious affiliation, as well as those who integrate spiritual beliefs within religious traditions (Johnson et al., 2011). Such conceptual clarity has been particularly valuable in psychological research exploring wellbeing and mental health across diverse cultural and developmental contexts (Joulaei et al., 2016).
Empirical research has consistently highlighted the relevance of spirituality for psychological adjustment and wellbeing. Rishi and Shukla (2018) demonstrated that spiritual wellbeing is associated with healthier coping and reduced death anxiety among individuals facing advanced illness, suggesting its role in fostering resilience under conditions of severe psychological stress. Similarly, Craig, Fardouly, and Rapee (2022) reported that higher levels of spirituality were linked to greater self-esteem, social support, meaning in life, and adaptive coping among young adults.
These findings underscore the role of spirituality as a psychological resource that contributes to emotional stability and positive self-evaluation.
Spirituality has also been examined as a protective factor in contexts of health-related vulnerability. Doust, Hojjati, and Farhangi (2020) demonstrated that spiritually oriented interventions were effective in reducing anxiety among adolescents with cancer, while Abdollahi et al. (2021) reported that spirituality positively influenced health outcomes among pregnant women by reducing stress and anxiety. Similar associations between spirituality, reduced psychological distress, and improved wellbeing have been observed among individuals coping with chronic illness and adverse life circumstances (Araj et al., 2018; Tao et al., 2022).
Importantly, psychological perspectives emphasize that spirituality is not static but develops across the lifespan. Spiritual beliefs and practices may deepen or transform in response to developmental demands, personal crises, and changing life roles (Medley, 1980). This dynamic nature makes spirituality particularly relevant for understanding mental health and coping processes across adulthood, where individuals encounter evolving responsibilities, stressors, and existential concerns. Conceptualizing spirituality as a multidimensional and evolving construct allows for a nuanced examination of its role in psychological functioning without reducing it to religious ideology alone (Peselow et al., 2014).
Coping Processes and Psychological Adjustment
Coping refers to the cognitive and behavioural efforts individuals employ to manage internal and external demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding available resources (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984). Within psychological research, coping is understood as a dynamic and context dependent process rather than a fixed trait, varying according to situational demands, personal resources, and developmental stage. The way individuals cope with stressors plays a critical role in psychological adjustment, influencing emotional regulation, mental health outcomes, and overall wellbeing.
Coping strategies are commonly classified into broad categories based on their functional orientation. Problem focused coping involves active efforts to modify or eliminate the source of stress through planning, problem solving, or seeking instrumental support (Carver, 1997). Emotion focused coping aims to regulate the emotional distress associated with stressful situations and includes strategies such as acceptance, emotional expression, positive reframing, and seeking emotional support (Folkman and Moskowitz, 2004). Avoidant coping, in contrast, involves disengagement from stressors through denial, behavioural withdrawal, or distraction, and is often associated with poorer psychological outcomes when used persistently (Carver et al., 1989).
A substantial body of research indicates that coping styles are differentially associated with mental health outcomes. Problem focused and adaptive emotion focused coping strategies have been linked to lower levels of depression, anxiety, and stress, as well as greater psychological resilience and life satisfaction (Roming and Howard, 2019). In contrast, avoidant coping has been consistently associated with heightened psychological distress, including increased depressive symptoms, anxiety, and stress related disorders (Singh and Kedare, 2014; Kroplewski et al., 2022). These associations highlight the importance of coping processes in shaping psychological adjustment across diverse life circumstances.
Coping processes do not operate in isolation but are influenced by personal meaning systems, belief structures, and internal resources. Spirituality has been identified as one such resource that may shape coping appraisals and responses, particularly in situations involving uncontrollable stressors, illness, or existential threat (Pargament, 1997). Spiritual coping may complement conventional coping strategies by providing meaning, hope, acceptance, and emotional comfort, thereby expanding an individual’s capacity to manage psychological distress (Vitorino et al., 2018).
Developmental research further suggests that coping strategies evolve across adulthood in response to changing roles, responsibilities, and stressors. Young adulthood is often characterized by academic, occupational, and relational challenges, whereas middle adulthood involves increased responsibilities related to work, family, and health (Medley, 1980). These developmental contexts may influence the preference for and effectiveness of particular coping styles, underscoring the importance of examining coping processes within specific age groups. Understanding coping as a flexible and multidimensional process provides a foundation for examining its interaction with spirituality and mental health outcomes across young and middle adulthood.
Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Across Adulthood
Depression, anxiety, and stress represent closely related yet distinct forms of psychological distress that significantly affect emotional functioning, cognitive processes, and everyday behaviour across adulthood. Depression is characterized by persistent low mood, diminished interest or pleasure, and negative self-evaluation, often accompanied by cognitive and behavioural impairments that interfere with daily functioning (ICD 11). Anxiety involves excessive fear, worry, and physiological arousal in response to perceived threats, while stress reflects a state of psychological and physiological tension arising when environmental demands exceed perceived coping resources (Selye, 1976; Lazarus, 1993). Although conceptually distinct, these conditions frequently co-occur and share common risk factors and outcomes. Research consistently demonstrates strong interrelationships among depression, anxiety, and stress, suggesting overlapping emotional and cognitive mechanisms (Lovibond and Lovibond, 1995). High levels of stress have been shown to increase vulnerability to both anxiety and depressive symptoms, while prolonged anxiety may contribute to the development or maintenance of depressive states. These conditions are associated with impairments in emotional regulation, decision making, interpersonal functioning, and physical health, underscoring their relevance as major mental health concerns across the lifespan.
The experience and expression of depression, anxiety, and stress vary across developmental stages. Young adulthood is marked by transitions related to education, career establishment, identity formation, and intimate relationships, often accompanied by heightened uncertainty and psychological strain (Medley, 1980). Empirical studies indicate that young adults report elevated levels of stress and anxiety, particularly in academic and occupational contexts, which may increase vulnerability to depressive symptoms when coping resources are insufficient (Aggarwal et al., 2021).
Middle adulthood presents a different constellation of stressors, including increased occupational responsibilities, caregiving roles, marital and family demands, and emerging health concerns. These cumulative pressures may contribute to sustained stress and emotional exhaustion, potentially elevating the risk for anxiety and depression (Kumar and Kumar, 2014). At the same time, middle adults may possess greater life experience and coping resources, which can moderate psychological distress under certain conditions.
Understanding depression, anxiety, and stress within a developmental framework is essential for examining protective and vulnerability factors across adulthood. Individual differences in coping strategies, personal meaning systems, and internal resources such as spirituality may influence how psychological distress is experienced and managed at different life stages. This perspective provides a critical foundation for exploring the role of spirituality and coping processes in relation to mental health outcomes among young and middle adults.
Spirituality as a Resource for Coping with Psychological Distress
An expanding body of psychological research has examined spirituality as a potential resource for coping with psychological distress, particularly in relation to depression, anxiety, and stress. Spirituality is often conceptualized as a meaning-oriented framework that helps individuals interpret adverse experiences, regulate emotional responses, and sustain hope during periods of vulnerability (Pargament, 1997). Through beliefs, practices, and experiences that foster acceptance, transcendence, and connectedness, spirituality may influence how stressors are appraised and managed.
Empirical evidence suggests that higher levels of spirituality are frequently associated with lower levels of psychological distress and improved mental health outcomes. Studies conducted among individuals facing serious illness have shown that spiritual wellbeing is linked to reduced depression and anxiety, enhanced resilience, and better overall quality of life (Johnson et al., 2011; Araj et al., 2018). Similarly, research among community and student populations has demonstrated that spirituality is positively associated with emotional stability, life satisfaction, and adaptive coping, while being negatively related to symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress (Craig et al., 2022; Aggarwal et al., 2021).
Spirituality has also been examined in the context of spiritual coping, which refers to the use of spiritual beliefs or practices to manage stressful situations. Positive spiritual coping, such as seeking meaning, trusting in a higher purpose, or engaging in prayer or meditation, has been associated with reduced emotional distress and improved psychological adjustment (Vitorino et al., 2018; Tao et al., 2022). In contrast, negative spiritual coping, including spiritual struggle or feelings of abandonment, has been linked to poorer mental health outcomes, highlighting the importance of how spirituality is engaged rather than its mere presence (Kroplewski et al., 2022).
Intervention based studies further support the role of spirituality in coping with psychological distress. Spiritual or spiritually integrated interventions have been shown to reduce anxiety, stress, and depressive symptoms among adolescents with cancer, pregnant women, and individuals coping with chronic illness (Doust et al., 2020; Sanaeinasab et al., 2021). These findings suggest that spirituality can complement conventional psychological interventions by addressing existential concerns and emotional needs that may not be fully captured by secular coping strategies alone.
Despite growing evidence supporting the beneficial role of spirituality, findings across studies are not entirely consistent. Variations in conceptual definitions, measurement tools, cultural contexts, and developmental stages contribute to mixed results in the literature. This underscores the need for further research examining the role of spirituality in relation to psychological distress and coping within specific populations and developmental contexts. Investigating spirituality as a coping resource among young and middle adults provides an opportunity to better understand its relevance and limitations in promoting psychological adjustment across adulthood.
Developmental Context of Young and Middle Adulthood
Young and middle adulthood represent distinct yet interconnected developmental phases, each characterized by unique psychological tasks, social roles, and stressors that influence mental health and coping processes. Developmental theories emphasize that the demands encountered during these life stages shape patterns of emotional regulation, coping strategies, and the use of internal resources such as spirituality (Medley, 1980). Understanding these contexts is essential for examining variations in psychological distress and coping across adulthood.
Young adulthood is typically marked by transitions related to identity formation, educational attainment, career establishment, and the development of intimate relationships. These transitions often involve uncertainty, role experimentation, and heightened performance expectations, which can contribute to elevated levels of stress and anxiety (Aggarwal et al., 2021). Limited life experience and evolving coping skills may further increase vulnerability to depressive symptoms when stressors become overwhelming. At the same time, young adulthood is a period of openness to exploration, during which individuals may actively seek meaning, purpose, and value systems that guide their life choices, including spiritual beliefs and practices.
Middle adulthood, in contrast, is characterized by greater role consolidation alongside